تافل اینترنتی iBT

ا تافل اینترنتی (iBT) آشنا شویم

تافل چیست؟

آزمون تافل (TOEFL) توسط سرویس سنجش تحصیلی (ETS) دانشگاه پرینستون (Princeton) برگزار می‌شود. این آزمون، مهارت در بخشهای شنیداری، گفتاری، نوشتاری، و درک مطلب انگلیسی را مورد سنجش قرار می‌دهد و برای پذیرش در دانشگاههای آمریکای شمالی مورد استفاده قرار می‌گیرد. نمره کسب شده در این آزمون جهت پذیرش در این دانشگاهها به مدت دو سال دارای اعتبار می‌باشد.

تافل اینترنتی (iBT) چه تفاوتی با تافل کتبی و کامپیوتری دارد؟

آزمون تافل اینترنتی (iBT) بخش جدیدی با عنوان «بخش گفتاری» (یا Speaking) دارد و در مقابل، بخش ساختار (Structure) که در آزمونهای کتبی و کامپیوتری وجود داشت، حذف شده است. گرامر بطور غیرمستقیم در بخشهای دیگر این آزمون مورد سنجش قرار می‌گیرد. سخنرانی‌ها و گفتگوها در بخش شنیداری (Listening) طولانی‌تر شده‌اند و خلاصه نویسی (note taking) نیز دیگر مجاز می‌باشد. در بخش درک مطلب (Reading)، نوع سؤالات متنوع‌تر شده و بعنوان مثال از شرکت کنندگان خواسته می‌شود اطلاعات را طبقه‌بندی کنند و یا جدولی را پر کنند. تایپ کردن هم در بخش نوشتاری دیگر الزامی است.

سیستم امتیازدهی در این آزمون چگونه است؟

سیستم امتیاز دهی در آزمون تافل اینترنتی (iBT) در جدول زیر نشان داده شده است:

0-30 0-30 0-30 0-30	Listening Reading Speaking Writing
0-120	Total score:

بخشهای مختلف تافل (iBT)

بخش درک مطلب (Reading)بخش درک مطلب در تافل iBT خیلی با نسخه کامپیوتری آن (CBT) تفاوت ندارد. این بخش از سه متن آکادمیک تشکیل شده است که به دنبال هر کدام چندین پرسش مطرح می‌شود. هر کدام از این متن‌ها حدوداً از 650 تا 750 کلمه ساخته شده‌اند. نوع سؤالات نیز ترکیبی از نوع سؤالات موجود در تافل کامپیوتری (CBT) و انواع جدیدتری از سؤالات است که در آن شرکت کنندگان باید جدولی را پر کنند یا یک نتیجه گیری روایی را تکمیل نمایند. دو ویژگی اضافه شده به بخش درک مطلب (Reading)، یکی فهرست لغات و دیگری یک گزینه تجدید نظر (review option) می‌باشد. «فهرست لغات» به شما این امکان را می‌دهد که معنی کلمات کلیدی موجود در متن را بیابید و با «گزینه تجدید نظر» (یا review option) می‌توانید برگردید و در پاسخهایتان تجدید نظر کنید.

بخش شنیداری (Listening)بخش شنیداری آزمون تافل توانایی شما را در درک مکالمات انگلیسی، آنگونه که در آمریکای شمالی صحبت می‌شود، ارزیابی می‌کند. بخش شنیداری آزمون تافل اینترنتی (iBT) هم خیلی با نسخه کامپیوتری آن (CBT) متفاوت نیست. این بخش از دو مکالمه و چهار سخنرانی درسی همراه با پرسشهای متعدد تشکیل یافته است.

بخش نوشتاری (Writing)این بخش از آزمون، توانایی شما را در به کار گیری «نوشتن» جهت برقراری ارتباط در یک محیط دانشگاهی مورد سنجش قرار می‌دهد. این بخش خود به دو قسمت تقسیم می‌شود: یک قسمت تلفیقی (integrated) و یک قسمت مستقل (independent) که تایپ کردن هم برای هر دو قسمت ضروری است. در قسمت تلفیقی شما باید در ابتدا متن کوتاهی را بخوانید (250 تا 300 کلمه) و سپس به یک نطق مرتبط با متن گوش دهید. بعد از آن شما باید با استفاده از اطلاعاتی که از متن و سخنرانی بدست آورده‌اید به یک پرسش پاسخ دهید. به شما 20 دقیقه فرصت داده می‌شود که پاسخ خود را که باید بین 150 تا 225 کلمه باشد، بنویسید. اما قسمت مستقل (independent) بخش نوشتاری، مشابه بخش نوشتاری آزمون کامپیوتری تافل می‌باشد: به شما 20 دقیقه فرصت داده می‌شد که انشاء کوتاهی در حدود 300 کلمه درباره یک موضوع خاص بنویسید.

بخش گفتاری (Speaking)این بخش جدید از آزمون تافل دارای شش تکلیف (task) می‌باشد که دو تکلیف آن به صورت مستقل (independent) و چهارتای آن به صورت تلفیقی می‌باشد.

بطور دقیق‌تر، بخش گفتاری آزمون تافل دارای قسمتهای زیر است:

• 2 تکلیف مستقل (independent) درباره موضوعات معمولی و آزاد.
  - شرکت‌کنندگان باید با استفاده از دانش و تجارب شخصی خود در مورد یک موضوع خاص موضع گیری کرده و آن را توضیح دهند.

• 2 تکلیف تلفیقی (integrated) بر اساس خواندن و شنیدن.
  - این تکالیف شامل یک متن کوتاه و یک صحبت کوتاه می‌باشند. شرکت کنندگان باید اطلاعاتی را که از این دو طریق بدست می‌آورند، با هم تلفیق کرده و در پاسخ خود به کار گیرند.

• 2 تکلیف تلفیقی بر اساس شنیدن یک سخنرانی یا گفتگوی کوتاه.
  - شرکت کنندگان باید نکات کلیدی موجود در آنچه که می‌شنوند را بطور خلاصه در پاسخ‌هایشان ارائه دهند.

مدت پاسخ‌گویی به هر کدام از تکالیف از 45 تا 60 ثانیه متغیر می‌باشد.

منبع: www.zabanamoozan.com

Feminist literary criticism

Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theory, or by the politics of feminism more broadly. Its history has been broad and varied, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in women's studies and gender studies by "third-wave" authors. In the most general and simple terms, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s—in the first and second waves of feminism—was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within literature.

Since the development of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity and third-wave feminism, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes, namely in the tradition of the Frankfurt School's critical theory. It has considered gender in the terms of Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing relations of power, and as a concrete political investment.^[1] It has been closely associated with the birth and growth of queer studies. And the more traditionally central feminist concern with the representation and politics of women's lives has continued to play an active role in criticism. In Indian literature the issues of feminism have been dealt with differently. As in a seminar held in Sahitya Academy writer Rafia Shabnam Abidi of Mumbai pointed out we have now a novel by Paigham Afaqui which has dealt with its female character Neera as a human being in most perfect manner while treating her being a female only as a part of her personality. She emphasised that for the first time in literature MAKAAN, a novel by a male writer (surprisingly) Paigham Afaqui has produced a character that contains and embodies the dream of the self of a woman that all thinkers through out the world have been craving for.She disputed the contention that only a female writer can contribute to feminist thinking and cause. 'A writer himself/herself has to rise above the gender dividing line while writing about a human society'.Commented Paigham Afaqui who was also present in the seminar. In a seminar held in Cuttuk (Orissa), India organised by National Book Trust, Autar Singh Judge had pointed out while representing Urdu fiction that Neera, the lead character of Makaan was the finest depiction of female character in the Indian literature. It received consensus. But unfortunately, the male politics as present in Urdu circles kept this view suppressed for a long time and started highlighting the writings of Quratul Ain Haider. they contented that 'writings by female writers' and not writings depicting female characters are feminist. the opinion is still divided but 'literature is not politics' as Paigham Afaqui pointed out on a few occasions in literary discussions. It is normally believed that female characters of Quratul Ain Haider only depict traditional personality of Indian women while Makaan is symbolizing the most vocal and effective career woman of India today.

Lisa Tuttle has defined feminist theory as asking "new questions of old texts." She cites the goals of feminist criticism as: (1) To develop and uncover a female tradition of writing, (2) to interpret symbolism of women's writing so that it will not be lost or ignored by the male point of view, (3) to rediscover old texts, (4) to analyze women writers and their writings from a female perspective, (5) to resist sexism in literature, and (6) to increase awareness of the sexual politics of language and style 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism 

Deconstruction

Deconstruction (or deconstructionism^[1]) is an approach, introduced by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, which rigorously pursues the meaning of a text to the point of exposing the supposed contradictions and internal oppositions upon which it is founded - showing that those foundations are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. It is an approach that may be deployed in philosophy, literary analysis, or other fields.

Deconstruction generally tries to demonstrate that any text is not a discrete whole but contains several irreconcilable and contradictory meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these interpretations inextricably; that the incompatibility of these interpretations is irreducible; and thus that an interpretative reading cannot go beyond a certain point. Derrida refers to this point as an aporia in the text, and terms deconstructive reading "aporetic." J. Hillis Miller has described deconstruction this way: “Deconstruction is not a dismantling of the structure of a text, but a demonstration that it has already dismantled itself. Its apparently-solid ground is no rock, but thin air

New Criticism

History

New Criticism developed in the 1920s-30s and peaked in the 1940s-50s. The movement is named after John Crowe Ransom's 1941 book The New Criticism. New Critics treat a work of literature as if it were self-contained. They do not consider the reader's response, author's intention, or historical and cultural contexts. New Critics perform a close reading of the text, and believe the structure and meaning of the text should not be examined separately. New Critics especially appreciate the use of literary devices in a text. The New Criticism has sometimes been called an objective approach to literature.^{[citation needed]}

The notion of ambiguity is an important concept within New Criticism; several prominent New Critics have been enamored above all else with the way that a text can display multiple simultaneous meanings. In the 1930s, I. A. Richards borrowed Sigmund Freud's term "overdetermination" (which Louis Althusser would later revive in Marxist political theory) to refer to the multiple meanings which he believed were always simultaneously present in language. To Richards, claiming that a work has "One And Only One True Meaning" is an act of superstition (The Philosophy of Rhetoric, 39).

In 1954, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published an essay entitled "The intentional fallacy", in which they argued strongly against any discussion of an author's intention, or "intended meaning." For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was quite irrelevant, and potentially distracting. This became a central tenet of the second generation of New Criticism.

On the other side of the page, so to speak, Wimsatt proposed an "affective fallacy", discounting the reader's peculiar reaction (or violence of reaction) as a valid measure of a text ("what it is" vs. "what it does"). This has wide-ranging implications, going back to the catharsis and cathexis of the Ancient Greeks, but also serves to exclude trivial but deeply affective advertisements and propaganda from the artistic canon.

Taken together, these fallacies might compel one to refer to a text and its functioning as an autonomous entity, intimate with but independent of both author and reader. This reflects the earlier attitude of Russian formalism and its attempt to describe poetry in mechanistic and then organic terms. (Both schools of thought might be said to anticipate the 21st century interest in electronic artificial intelligence, and perhaps lead researchers in that field to underestimate the difficulty of that undertaking.)

Hamlet

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 

This article is about the Shakespeare play. For other uses, see Hamlet (disambiguation).

The American actor Edwin Booth as Hamlet, c. 1870

The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, or more simply Hamlet, is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1599 and 1601. The play, set in the Kingdom of Denmark, recounts how Prince Hamlet exacts revenge on his uncle Claudius for murdering the old King Hamlet, Claudius's own brother and Prince Hamlet's father, and then succeeding to the throne and marrying Gertrude, the King Hamlet's widow and mother of Prince Hamlet. The play vividly charts the course of real and feigned madness—from overwhelming grief to seething rage—and explores themes of treachery, revenge, incest, and moral corruption.

Despite much research, the exact year Hamlet was written remains in dispute. Three different early versions of the play have survived: these are known as the First Quarto (Q1), the Second Quarto (Q2) and the First Folio (F1). Each has lines, and even scenes, that are missing from the others. Shakespeare based Hamlet on the legend of Amleth, preserved by 13th-century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum as subsequently retold by 16th-century scholar François de Belleforest. He may have also drawn on, or perhaps written, an earlier (hypothetical) Elizabethan play known today as the Ur-Hamlet.

The play's structure and depth of characterization have inspired much critical scrutiny, of which one example is the centuries-old debate about Hamlet's hesitation to kill his uncle. Some see it as a plot device to prolong the action, and others see it as the result of pressure exerted by the complex philosophical and ethical issues that surround cold-blooded murder, calculated revenge and thwarted desire. More recently, psychoanalytic critics have examined Hamlet's unconscious desires, and feminist critics have re-evaluated and rehabilitated the often maligned characters of Ophelia and Gertrude.

Hamlet is Shakespeare's longest play and among the most powerful and influential tragedies in the English language. It provides a storyline capable of "seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others."^[1] During Shakespeare's lifetime, the play was one of his most popular works,^[2] and it still ranks high among his most-performed, topping, for example, the Royal Shakespeare Company's list since 1879.^[3] It has inspired writers from Goethe and Dickens to Joyce and Murdoch and has been described as "the world's most filmed story after Cinderella."^[4] The title role was almost certainly created for Richard Burbage, the leading tragedian of Shakespeare's time.^[5] In the four hundred years since, it has been performed by highly acclaimed actors and actresses from each successive age.

William Golding

Introduction

William Golding

Imagine a man who embraced solitude as a child but who became famous for writing about group dynamics. Imagine a man who enjoyed the benefits of a peaceful adolescence, complete with private schooling, but who spent his adult years writing about the inherent violent nature of humans. Imagine a man who was groomed by his parents to be a scientist but who ended up as one of the greatest writers of his time. Imagine William Golding. Raised by educated parents who supported rational thought, Golding used his experiences from World War II to create novels of dark human action. Nothing in Golding’s past suggests that he should become the foremost author of the twentieth century to write about the conflict between barbaric human nature and civil reasoning; his novels, however, continue to entertain and raise those same questions today.

Essential Facts

1. During his five-year military career, Golding was a participant in both the sinking of the great German battleship, the Bismarck, and in the allied invasion of Normandy.
2. Golding’s most famous novel, The Lord of the Flies, was originally titled The Strangers Within and was published twenty-nine years before he won the Nobel Prize for Literature.
3. Lord of the Flies was rejected by twenty-one publishers before acceptance by Faber and Faber.
4. One of Golding’s hobbies was researching and exploring the myth of the Loch Ness monster.
5. Golding was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1988.

http://www.enotes.com/authors/william-golding

Harold Pinter

Introduction

Harold Pinter

Harold Pinter began his career as an actor, but he quickly turned his attention to writing and became one of the twentieth century’s most prolific and important playwrights. Pinter loves to play with words, and many of his works feature witty banter between characters interspersed with long pauses. Pinter did not originally want to be categorized as a political writer, but in the 1980s, his work took on a decidedly leftist tone. Pinter’s personal life has been as stormy as that of many of his characters. He was married to actress Vivien Merchant for several years, and they had one son. He then embarked on several long affairs, which cost him his marriage and the love and respect of his son.

Essential Facts

1. Harold Pinter’s stage name as an actor was David Baron.
2. Pinter won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2005 and the Legion d’honneur in 2007.
3. Pinter is a huge cricket fan. He has said, “One of my main obsessions in life is the game of cricket—I play and watch and read about it all the time.”
4. Pinter has been vocal about his politics and was once thrown out of the U.S. embassy in Turkey.
5. Pinter publicly announced in 2005 that he was retiring from playwriting. Since then, he has written a screenplay, short dramatic sketches, and a great deal of poetry.

http://www.enotes.com/authors/harold-pinter

James Joyce

Introduction

James Joyce

One of the greatest writers of the early twentieth century, James Joyce suffered from an incurable case of wanderlust. During his 58 years, he lived in many different parts of the world. He began his life in Dublin, Ireland, which was the setting for most of his great fiction. In 1903, he moved to Paris, but returned to Dublin a year later when his mother was dying. He remained in Dublin long enough to marry Nora Barnacle, a maid at a Dublin hotel. Shortly thereafter, Joyce moved to Zurich and then on to Trieste where he stayed for a decade teaching English and writing. Joyce’s life was a troubled one with bouts of alcoholism, depression, and poverty. Despite his problems, he managed to write many influential pieces of literature: Ulysses, Finnegans Wake, the short story collection Dubliners, and a somewhat autobiographical novel, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.

Essential Facts

1. Joyce was attacked by a dog as a young boy and ended up with a severe canine phobia that persisted throughout his life. He was also afraid of thunderstorms because his grandmother once told him storms were a sign of God’s wrath.
2. Dedham, Massachusetts, hosts an annual James Joyce Ramble, which is a 10K race. Each mile is dedicated to one of Joyce’s works, and actors in period costumes line the streets and read from his novels as the runners pass.
3. The last story in Joyce’s Dubliners collection, “The Dead,” was made into a film in 1987 by director John Huston. It was Huston’s last major film before he died.
4. Joyce’s grandson, Stephen, has supposedly destroyed many letters written by his grandfather. He has also blocked what he considers “inappropriate” adaptations of his grandfather’s work.
5. The library at the University College in Dublin is named after James Joyce.

http://www.enotes.com/authors/james-joyce