mashhad

Mashhad (Persian: مشهد from Arabic: مشهد‎, ‹Mašhad›, literally the place of martyrdom)^[3][4] is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia Muslim world. It is also the only major Iranian city with an Arabic name. It is located 850 kilometres (530 mi) east of Tehran, at the center of the Razavi Khorasan Province close to the borders of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Its population was 2,427,316 at the 2006 population census.^[1]

Now Mashhad is notably known as the resting place of the Imam Reza. A shrine was later built there to commemorate the Imam, which in turn gave rise to increasing demographic development.

Mashhad is also known as the city of Ferdowsi, the eminent Iranian poet of Shahnameh, which is considered to be the national epic of Iran.

tabriz

Tabriz (Persian/Azerbaijani:تبریز) is the most populated city in Iranian Azerbaijan, it is fourth largest city in Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quri River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former capitals, and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history. Tabriz is located in a valley to the north of the long ridge of the volcanic cone of Sahand, south of the Eynali mountain. The valley opens out into a plain that slopes gently down to the northern end of Lake Urmia, 60 km to the west. With cold winters and temperate summers the city is considered a summer resort.

The estimated population of the city is around 1,400,000^[1] based on results of the Iranian census bureau. Tabriz is the fourth most populated city in Iran after Tehran, Mashhad, and Esfahan, while also being a major Iranian heavy industrial and manufacturing center. Some of these industries include automobile, machine tools, oil and petrochemical and cement production.^[2]

With a rich history, Tabriz contains many historical monuments, which repeated devastating earthquakes have substantially damaged. Monuments date back to the Ilkhanid, Safavid, and Qajar periods^[3][4][5], with the large Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex being named as a World Heritage Site in 2010.

tabriz

Tabriz (Persian/Azerbaijani:تبریز) is the most populated city in Iranian Azerbaijan, it is fourth largest city in Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quri River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former capitals, and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history. Tabriz is located in a valley to the north of the long ridge of the volcanic cone of Sahand, south of the Eynali mountain. The valley opens out into a plain that slopes gently down to the northern end of Lake Urmia, 60 km to the west. With cold winters and temperate summers the city is considered a summer resort.

The estimated population of the city is around 1,400,000^[1] based on results of the Iranian census bureau. Tabriz is the fourth most populated city in Iran after Tehran, Mashhad, and Esfahan, while also being a major Iranian heavy industrial and manufacturing center. Some of these industries include automobile, machine tools, oil and petrochemical and cement production.^[2]

With a rich history, Tabriz contains many historical monuments, which repeated devastating earthquakes have substantially damaged. Monuments date back to the Ilkhanid, Safavid, and Qajar periods^[3][4][5], with the large Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex being named as a World Heritage Site in 2010

Formalism

Formalism is a school of literary criticism and literary theory having mainly to do with structural purposes of a particular text.

In literary theory, formalism refers to critical approaches that analyze, interpret, or evaluate the inherent features of a text. These features include not only grammar and syntax but also literary devices such as meter and tropes. The formalist approach reduces the importance of a text’s historical, biographical, and cultural context.

Formalism rose to prominence in the early twentieth century as a reaction against Romanticist theories of literature, which centered on the artist and individual creative genius, and instead placed the text itself back into the spotlight, to show how the text was indebted to forms and other works that had preceded it. Two schools of formalist literary criticism developed, Russian formalism, and soon after Anglo-American New Criticism. Formalism was the dominant mode of academic literary study in the US at least from the end of the Second World War through the 1970s, especially as embodied in René Wellek and Austin Warren's Theory of Literature (1948, 1955, 1962).

Beginning in the late 1970s, formalism was substantially displaced by various approaches (often with political aims or assumptions) that were suspicious of the idea that a literary work could be separated from its origins or uses.^{[citation needed]} The term has often had a pejorative cast and has been used by opponents to indicate either aridity or ideological deviance.^{[citation needed]} Some recent trends in academic literary criticism suggest that formalism may be making a comeback

Schools of Criticism

Schools of Criticism

Suppose we bear that question in mind in surveying the various schools of criticism. There are many, but could perhaps be grouped as:

Traditional

Though perhaps Edwardian in style, this approach — essentially one of trying to broaden understanding and appreciation — is still used in general surveys of English literature. There is usually some information on the writer and his times, and a little illustration, but no close analysis of the individual work or its aims.

New Criticism

The poem (the approach works best for poetry, and especially the lyric) is detached from its biographical or historical context, and analyzed thoroughly: diction, imagery, meanings, particularly complexities of meaning. Some explanation of unfamiliar words and/or uses may be allowed, but the poem is otherwise expected to stand on its own feet, as though it were a contemporary production.

Rhetorical

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion, and the rhetorical approach attempts to understand how the content of the poem, which is more than intellectual meaning, is put across. How arguments are presented, attitudes struck, evidence marshalled, various appeals made to the reader — all are relevant.

Chicago school

The Chicago School of literary criticism was a form of criticism of English literature begun at the University of Chicago in the 1930s, which lasted until the 1950s. It was also called Neo-Aristotelianism, due to its strong emphasis on Aristotle’s concepts of plot, character and genre. It was partly a reaction to New Criticism, a then highly popular form of literary criticism, which the Chicago critics accused of being too subjective and placing too much importance on irony and figurative language. They aimed instead for total objectivity, and a strong classical basis of evidence for criticism. The New Critics regarded the language and poetic diction as most important, but the Chicago School considered such things merely the building material of poetry. Like Aristotle, they valued the structure or form of a literary work as a whole, rather than the complexities of the language. Despite this, the Chicago school is considered by some to be a part of the New Criticism movement.

Archetypal literary criticism

Archetypal literary criticism is a type of critical theory that interprets a text by focusing on recurring myths and archetypes (from the Greek archē, or beginning, and typos, or imprint) in the narrative, symbols, images, and character types in a literary work. As a form of literary criticism, it dates back to 1934 when Maud Bodkin published Archetypal Patterns in Poetry.

Archetypal literary criticism’s origins are rooted in two other academic disciplines, social anthropology and psychoanalysis; each contributed to the literary criticism in separate ways, with the latter being a sub-branch of the critical theory. Archetypal criticism was its most popular in the 1950s and 1960s, largely due to the work of Canadian literary critic Northrop Frye. Though archetypal literary criticism is no longer widely practiced, nor have there been any major developments in the field, it still has a place in the tradition of literary studies. 

Frazer

The anthropological origins of archetypal criticism can pre-date its psychoanalytic origins by over thirty years. The Golden Bough (1890–1915), written by the Scottish anthropologist James G. Frazer was the first influential text dealing with cultural mythologies. Frazer was part of a group of comparative anthropologists working out of Cambridge University who worked extensively on the topic. The Golden Bough was widely accepted as the seminal text on myth that spawned numerous studies on the same subject. Eventually, the momentum of Frazer’s work carried over into literary studies.

In The Golden Bough Frazer identifies shared practices and mythological beliefs between primitive religions and modern religions. Frazer argues that the death-rebirth myth is present in almost all cultural mythologies, and is acted out in terms of growing seasons and vegetation. The myth is symbolized by the death (i.e. final harvest) and rebirth (i.e. spring) of the god of vegetation. As an example, Frazer cites the Greek myth of Persephone, who was taken to the Underworld by Hades. Her mother Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, was so sad that she struck the world with fall and winter. While in the underworld Persephone ate 6 of the 12 pomegranate seeds given to her by Hades. Because of what she ate, she was forced to spend half the year, from then on, in the underworld, representative of autumn and winter, or the death in the death-rebirth myth. The other half of the year Persephone was permitted to be in the mortal realm with Demeter, which represents spring and summer, or the rebirth in the death-rebirth myth.

ارشد اموزش زبان انگلیسی

منابع ازمون کارشناسی ارشد آموزش زبان انگلیسی، توصیه شده توسط دانشگاه تهران و دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی

Language Teaching Methodology

1- Principles of Language Teaching and Learning. Douglas H. Brown
2- Teaching Foreign Language Skills. W.M. Rivers
3- Developing Second Language Skills. K. Chastain
4- Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Richards & Rodgers
5- Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. D. L. Freeman
6- Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. M. Celcia Murcia
7- Tesol Teaching Procedures. Brown and Madson
8- Teaching Language as a Second Language. Panlston and Bruder
9- Fundamental Concepts in Language Teaching. H.H. Stern
10- Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. V. Cook
11- An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning. Johnson
12- Second Language Teaching and Learning. D. Nunan
13- Methodology in Language Teaching. J. Richards
14- A Course in Language Teaching. P. UR

Testing

1- Testing Language Skills, From Theory to Practice. Farhadi, Jafarpour and Birjandi
2- Testing English as a Second Language. D. Harris
3- Writing English Language Tests. Heaton
4- Techniques in Language Testing. Madsen
5- Language Tests at School. J.W. Oller
6- Communicative Language Testing. Weir
7- Testing Language. A. Davis
8- Testing English. D. Baker
9- Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. L. Bachman
10- Testing for Language Teachers. A. Hughes

Research

1- Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. H. Farhadi
2- Research Designs and Statistics for Applied Linguistics. Hatch and Farhadi
3- Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. James DeanBrown

Linguistics 

1- The Study of Language. G. Yule

2- Linguistics and Languages. J.S. Falk
3- Language and Linguistics. J. Lyon
4- Teach Yourself Linguistics. J. Atchison
5- An Introduction to Language. Fromkin and Rodman
6- Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. V. Cook
7- Syntax. A. Radford
8- Transformational Grammar. A. Radford

Dictioinaries

1- Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics and Teaching. Richards & Platt

2- An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. D. Crystal

3- Linguistics Terms and Concepts. Geoffrey Finch 

 

 

 

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