William Shakespeare

Works

Comedies Main article: Shakespearean comedy All's Well That Ends Well‡ As You Like It The Comedy of Errors Love's Labour's Lost Measure for Measure‡ The Merchant of Venice The Merry Wives of Windsor A Midsummer Night's Dream Much Ado About Nothing Pericles, Prince of Tyre*† The Taming of the Shrew The Tempest* Twelfth Night The Two Gentlemen of Verona The Two Noble Kinsmen*† The Winter's Tale*

Histories Main article: Shakespearean history King John Richard II Henry IV, part 1 Henry IV, part 2 Henry V Henry VI, part 1† Henry VI, part 2 Henry VI, part 3 Richard III Henry VIII†

Tragedies Main article: Shakespearean tragedy Romeo and Juliet Coriolanus Titus Andronicus† Timon of Athens† Julius Caesar Macbeth† Hamlet Troilus and Cressida‡ King Lear Othello Antony and Cleopatra Cymbeline*

Poems Shakespeare's Sonnets Venus and Adonis The Rape of Lucrece The Passionate Pilgrim[nb 5] The Phoenix and the Turtle A Lover's Complaint

Lost plays Love's Labour's Won Cardenio†

Apocrypha Main article: Shakespeare Apocrypha Arden of Faversham The Birth of Merlin Locrine The London Prodigal The Puritan The Second Maiden's Tragedy Sir John Oldcastle Thomas Lord Cromwell A Yorkshire Tragedy Edward III Sir Thomas More

http://en.wikipedia.org

Literature

People sometimes differentiate between "literature" and some popular forms of written work. The terms "literary fiction" and "literary merit" serve to distinguish between individual works. Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature," for example, on the grounds of bad grammar or syntax, unbelievable or disjointed story, or inconsistent characterization. Sometimes, a work may be excluded based on its prevailing subject or theme: genre fiction such as romances, crime fiction, (mystery), science fiction, horror or fantasy have all been excluded at one time or another from the literary pantheon, and depending on the dominant mode, may or may not come back into vogue.

alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words.
See Assonance and Consonance.

Alliteration is the genus, whereas, assonance and consonance are the species. So an example would be alliteration and then more specifically and exactly consonance or assonance.

"lady lounges lazily" is both alliteration and consonance

Example:
In cliches: sweet smell of success, a dime a dozen, bigger and better, jump for joy
Wordsworth: And sings a solitary song That whistles in the wind.

The matching or repetition of consonants is called alliteration, or the repeating of the same letter (or sound) at the beginning of words following each other immediately or at short intervals. A famous example is to be found in the two lines by Tennyson:

The moan of doves in immemorial elms,
And murmuring of innumerable bees.

allegory

Allegory is a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.

Thus an allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning


http://www.tnellen.com

tehran

Tehran (Persian: تهران Tehrān pronounced [tehˈɾɒːn]), in languages with Latin characters often Teheran, is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. With a population of 8,429,807;^[3] it is also Iran's largest urban area and city, one of the largest cities in Western Asia, and is the 21st largest city in the world.

Tehran is the centre of most Iranian industries including automotive, electrical, military, weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and chemical. Tehran is also a leading centre for the sale of carpets and furniture. There is an oil refinery located south of the city.^[4]

In the 20th century, Tehran was subject to mass-migration of people from all around Iran.The main and original inhabitants of the city are Persians and the principal language of the city is Persian with Tehranese accent spoken natively by over 98% of the city's population [7].The rest 2% are immigrant minority languages including Gilaki, Mazandarani, Armenian, Arabic, Azerbaijani Turkic, Kurdish and Luri and the lingua franca between these ethnic groups is Persian[8]. The city is home to many historic mosques, churches, synagogues and Zoroastrian fire temples. Contemporary Tehran is a modern city featuring many tall structures, of which the Azadi (Freedom) Tower and the Milad Tower have come to be symbols of Tehran itself. Internationally Tehran was in 2008, the least expensive capital in the world and only the second least expensive city globally based on Cost-of-living index, in addition to presenting the best value for money in the world.^{[5][6][7][8][9]} Furthermore globally it stands 19th by city population,^[10] 56th by the size of its GDP and 29th by the population of its metropolitan area.^[11] Due to long history of Iran, there have been many instances of capital city relocations over the ages and Tehran, currently is the 32nd national capital of Iran

http://en.wikipedia.org

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tabriz

History

Tabriz has been settled since ancient times.

4th century BCE: It is the capital of Atropatene, named after one of Alexander the Great's generals.
3rd century CE: Is the capital of Armenia, under the name Tauris.
791: Tabriz is rebuilt after being destroyed by an earthquake.
858: An earthquake destroys large parts of Tabriz.
1041: An earthquake destroys large parts of Tabriz.
1295: The Mongol Il-Khan Mahmud Ghazan makes Tabriz his capital.
1548: At the sacrifice of Tabriz, Qazvin becomes new capital of the Safavid kingdom. Tabriz was considered to exposed to a potential Ottoman invasion.
1721: An earthquake destroys large parts of Tabriz.
1780: Another earthquake destroys large parts of Tabriz.
1826: Tabriz is occupied by the Russians.
1828: Persian troops take back control over Tabriz.
1850: The Bab, founder of the Babi Islamic sect and forerunner of the Baha'i religion, is executed together with 40,000 of his followers in Tabriz.

1908: Tabriz becomes the centre of the Iranian Nationalist movement.
1927: An earthquake destroys large parts of Tabriz.

1941: Is occupied by the Soviets.

1945 December: Becomes the capital of the Autonomous Government of Azerbaijan.

1946: Tabriz University is opened.

www.i-cias.com

تعریف نقد

نقد در لغت به معنی « جدا کردن دینار و درهم سره از ناسره و تمیز دادن خوب از بد و بهین چیزی برگزیدن » است.
در اصطلاح ادب، تشخیص محاسن و معایب سخن و نشان دادن بد و خوب اثر ادبی است.

اهمیت و فایده ی نقد ادبی

1 – نقد ادبی امکان درک نکته های بدیع و لطیف آثار را فراهم می کند در نتیجه خواننده می تواند از مطالعه ی آثار ادبی بهره و لذت ببرد.

2 – ارزش واقعی، آثار ادبی را آشکار می کند و مشخص می کند که رعایت چه قواعد و اصولی سبب شده تا اثری مورد قبول واقع شود و یا وجود چه عواملی سبب شده تا اثری مورد بی اعتنایی قرار گیرد.

3– نقد ادبی، مانع از آن می شود که گزافه گویان و مدعیان دروغین بتوانند آثار بی ارزش خود را به جویندگان و طالبان هنر عرضه کنند.

4 – نقد ادبی، وقتی مفید خواهد بود و ارزش و اهمیت دارد که دور از شایبه ی اغراض باشد.
5 – نقد ادبی، گذشته از این که سازنده و دارای اهمیت فراوان است گاهی خود،نوعی آفرینش هنری نیز محسوب می شود.

حدود و امکان نقد ادبی

نقد ادبی، بررسی همه جانبه و کامل یک اثر ادبی است. از این دو اکتفا کردن به شکل ظاهری اثر یعنی توجه به نقد لغوی کافی نیست و منتقد می باید به بحث در باب جوهر و معنی و مضمون یک اثر ادبی نیز بپردازد ( نقد معنی ) و هدف و غرض خاص شاعر یا نویسنده را باز گو کند.

- اغلب مردم، ذوق را ملاک سنجش آثار ادبی دانسته اند و به همین دلیل است که غالباً در میان مردم در تعیین بهترین شاعر یا نویسنده اختلاف هست.
- منتقد باید با دید و وجدان علمی و دور از هر نوع نظر شخص و با میزان های منطقی و علمی به کار نقد و نقادی بپردازد و نقد خود را از هر نوع شایبه ی غرض دور نگه دارد که لازمه ی این کار هم آن است که ابتدا آثاری که در ادبیات جهان در نزد اکثر مردم به عنوان اصلی و خالص و قابل قبول شناخته شده اند چنان که باید معلوم شوند.
- کامل ترین نوع نقد آن است که بر کامل ترین شناخت و جامع ترین دیدها مبتنی باشد.

Plato

The son of wealthy and influential Athenian parents, Plato began his philosophical career as a student of Socrates. When the master died, Plato travelled to Egypt and Italy, studied with students of Pythagoras, and spent several years advising the ruling family of Syracuse.