Psychoanalytic literary criticism

Psychoanalytic literary criticism refers to literary criticism which, in method, concept, theory, or form, is influenced by the tradition of psychoanalysis begun by Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalytic reading has been practiced since the early development of psychoanalysis itself, and has developed into a rich and heterogeneous interpretive tradition.

It is a literary approach where critics see the text as if it were a kind of dream. This means that the text represses its real (or latent) content behind obvious (manifest) content. The process of changing from latent to manifest content is known as the dream work, and involves operations of concentration and displacement. The critic analyzes the language and symbolism of a text to reverse the process of the dream work and arrive at the underlying latent thoughts.

Freud wrote several important essays on literature, which he used to explore the psyche of authors and characters, to explain narrative mysteries, and to develop new concepts in psychoanalysis (for instance, Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva and his influential readings of the Oedipus myth and Shakespeare's Hamlet in The Interpretation of Dreams). His followers and later readers, such as Carl Jung and Jacques Lacan, were avid readers of literature as well, and used literary examples as illustrations of important concepts in their work (for instance, Lacan argued with Jacques Derrida over the interpretation of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Purloined Letter").

Jung and another of Freud's disciples, Karen Horney, broke with Freud, and their work, especially Jung's, led to other rich branches of psychoanalytic criticism: Horney's to feminist approaches including womb envy, and Jung's to the study of archetypes and the collective unconscious. Jung's work in particular was influential as, combined with the work of anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Joseph Campbell, it led to the entire fields of mythocriticism and archetype analysis.

The object of psychoanalytic literary criticism, at its very simplest, can be the psychoanalysis of the author or of a particularly interesting character. In this directly therapeutic form, it is very similar to psychoanalysis itself, closely following the analytic interpretive process discussed in Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams. But many more complex variations are possible. The concepts of psychoanalysis can be deployed with reference to the narrative or poetic structure itself, without requiring access to the authorial psyche (an interpretation motivated by Lacan's remark that "the unconscious is structured like a language"). Or the founding texts of psychoanalysis may themselves be treated as literature, and re-read for the light cast by their formal qualities on their theoretical content (Freud's texts frequently resemble detective stories, or the archaeological narratives of which he was so fond).

Like all forms of literary criticism, psychoanalytic criticism can yield useful clues to the sometime baffling symbols, actions, and settings in a literary work; however, like all forms of literary criticism, it has its limits. For one thing, some critics rely on psychocriticism as a "one size fits all" approach, when in fact no one approach can adequately illuminate a complex work of art. As Guerin, et al. put it in A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_literary_criticism

Marxist literary criticism

Marxist literary criticism is a loose term describing literary criticism informed by the philosophy or the politics of Marxism. Its history is as long as Marxism itself, as both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels read widely (Marx had a great affection for Shakespeare, as well as contemporary writings like the work of his contemporary Heinrich Heine). In the twentieth century, many of the foremost writers of Marxist theory have also been literary critics, including Georg Lukács, Leon Trotsky, Franz Mehring, Raymond Williams, and Fredric Jameson.

The English literary critic and cultural theorist Terry Eagleton defines Marxist criticism this way:

"Marxist criticism is not merely a 'sociology of literature', concerned with how novels get published and whether they mention the working class. Its aim is to explain the literary work more fully; and this means a sensitive attention to its forms, styles and meanings. But it also means grasping those forms, styles and meanings as the product of a particular history."^[]

The simplest goals of Marxist literary criticism can include an assessment of the political "tendency" of a literary work, determining whether its social content or its literary form are "progressive"; however, this is by no means the only or the necessary goal. From Walter Benjamin to Fredric Jameson, Marxist literary critics have also been concerned with applying lessons drawn from the realm of aesthetics to the realm of politics, as originated in the Frankfurt School's critical theory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism

.

TO SPRING

TO SPRING

by: William Blake (1757-1827)

 THOU with dewy locks, who lookest down

Through the clear windows of the morning, turn

Thine angel eyes upon our western isle,

Which in full choir hails thy approach, O Spring!

 

The hills tell one another, and the listening

Valleys hear; all our longing eyes are turn'd

Up to thy bright pavilions: issue forth

And let thy holy feet visit our clime!

 

Come o'er the eastern hills, and let our winds

Kiss thy perfumèd garments; let us taste

Thy morn and evening breath; scatter thy pearls

Upon our lovesick land that mourns for thee.

 

O deck her forth with thy fair fingers; pour

Thy soft kisses on her bosom; and put

Thy golden crown upon her languish'd head,

Whose modest tresses are bound up for thee

http://www.poetry-archive.com

تافل اینترنتی iBT

ا تافل اینترنتی (iBT) آشنا شویم

تافل چیست؟

آزمون تافل (TOEFL) توسط سرویس سنجش تحصیلی (ETS) دانشگاه پرینستون (Princeton) برگزار می‌شود. این آزمون، مهارت در بخشهای شنیداری، گفتاری، نوشتاری، و درک مطلب انگلیسی را مورد سنجش قرار می‌دهد و برای پذیرش در دانشگاههای آمریکای شمالی مورد استفاده قرار می‌گیرد. نمره کسب شده در این آزمون جهت پذیرش در این دانشگاهها به مدت دو سال دارای اعتبار می‌باشد.

تافل اینترنتی (iBT) چه تفاوتی با تافل کتبی و کامپیوتری دارد؟

آزمون تافل اینترنتی (iBT) بخش جدیدی با عنوان «بخش گفتاری» (یا Speaking) دارد و در مقابل، بخش ساختار (Structure) که در آزمونهای کتبی و کامپیوتری وجود داشت، حذف شده است. گرامر بطور غیرمستقیم در بخشهای دیگر این آزمون مورد سنجش قرار می‌گیرد. سخنرانی‌ها و گفتگوها در بخش شنیداری (Listening) طولانی‌تر شده‌اند و خلاصه نویسی (note taking) نیز دیگر مجاز می‌باشد. در بخش درک مطلب (Reading)، نوع سؤالات متنوع‌تر شده و بعنوان مثال از شرکت کنندگان خواسته می‌شود اطلاعات را طبقه‌بندی کنند و یا جدولی را پر کنند. تایپ کردن هم در بخش نوشتاری دیگر الزامی است.

سیستم امتیازدهی در این آزمون چگونه است؟

سیستم امتیاز دهی در آزمون تافل اینترنتی (iBT) در جدول زیر نشان داده شده است:

0-30 0-30 0-30 0-30	Listening Reading Speaking Writing
0-120	Total score:

بخشهای مختلف تافل (iBT)

بخش درک مطلب (Reading)بخش درک مطلب در تافل iBT خیلی با نسخه کامپیوتری آن (CBT) تفاوت ندارد. این بخش از سه متن آکادمیک تشکیل شده است که به دنبال هر کدام چندین پرسش مطرح می‌شود. هر کدام از این متن‌ها حدوداً از 650 تا 750 کلمه ساخته شده‌اند. نوع سؤالات نیز ترکیبی از نوع سؤالات موجود در تافل کامپیوتری (CBT) و انواع جدیدتری از سؤالات است که در آن شرکت کنندگان باید جدولی را پر کنند یا یک نتیجه گیری روایی را تکمیل نمایند. دو ویژگی اضافه شده به بخش درک مطلب (Reading)، یکی فهرست لغات و دیگری یک گزینه تجدید نظر (review option) می‌باشد. «فهرست لغات» به شما این امکان را می‌دهد که معنی کلمات کلیدی موجود در متن را بیابید و با «گزینه تجدید نظر» (یا review option) می‌توانید برگردید و در پاسخهایتان تجدید نظر کنید.

بخش شنیداری (Listening)بخش شنیداری آزمون تافل توانایی شما را در درک مکالمات انگلیسی، آنگونه که در آمریکای شمالی صحبت می‌شود، ارزیابی می‌کند. بخش شنیداری آزمون تافل اینترنتی (iBT) هم خیلی با نسخه کامپیوتری آن (CBT) متفاوت نیست. این بخش از دو مکالمه و چهار سخنرانی درسی همراه با پرسشهای متعدد تشکیل یافته است.

بخش نوشتاری (Writing)این بخش از آزمون، توانایی شما را در به کار گیری «نوشتن» جهت برقراری ارتباط در یک محیط دانشگاهی مورد سنجش قرار می‌دهد. این بخش خود به دو قسمت تقسیم می‌شود: یک قسمت تلفیقی (integrated) و یک قسمت مستقل (independent) که تایپ کردن هم برای هر دو قسمت ضروری است. در قسمت تلفیقی شما باید در ابتدا متن کوتاهی را بخوانید (250 تا 300 کلمه) و سپس به یک نطق مرتبط با متن گوش دهید. بعد از آن شما باید با استفاده از اطلاعاتی که از متن و سخنرانی بدست آورده‌اید به یک پرسش پاسخ دهید. به شما 20 دقیقه فرصت داده می‌شود که پاسخ خود را که باید بین 150 تا 225 کلمه باشد، بنویسید. اما قسمت مستقل (independent) بخش نوشتاری، مشابه بخش نوشتاری آزمون کامپیوتری تافل می‌باشد: به شما 20 دقیقه فرصت داده می‌شد که انشاء کوتاهی در حدود 300 کلمه درباره یک موضوع خاص بنویسید.

بخش گفتاری (Speaking)این بخش جدید از آزمون تافل دارای شش تکلیف (task) می‌باشد که دو تکلیف آن به صورت مستقل (independent) و چهارتای آن به صورت تلفیقی می‌باشد.

بطور دقیق‌تر، بخش گفتاری آزمون تافل دارای قسمتهای زیر است:

• 2 تکلیف مستقل (independent) درباره موضوعات معمولی و آزاد.
  - شرکت‌کنندگان باید با استفاده از دانش و تجارب شخصی خود در مورد یک موضوع خاص موضع گیری کرده و آن را توضیح دهند.

• 2 تکلیف تلفیقی (integrated) بر اساس خواندن و شنیدن.
  - این تکالیف شامل یک متن کوتاه و یک صحبت کوتاه می‌باشند. شرکت کنندگان باید اطلاعاتی را که از این دو طریق بدست می‌آورند، با هم تلفیق کرده و در پاسخ خود به کار گیرند.

• 2 تکلیف تلفیقی بر اساس شنیدن یک سخنرانی یا گفتگوی کوتاه.
  - شرکت کنندگان باید نکات کلیدی موجود در آنچه که می‌شنوند را بطور خلاصه در پاسخ‌هایشان ارائه دهند.

مدت پاسخ‌گویی به هر کدام از تکالیف از 45 تا 60 ثانیه متغیر می‌باشد.

منبع: www.zabanamoozan.com

Feminist literary criticism

Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theory, or by the politics of feminism more broadly. Its history has been broad and varied, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in women's studies and gender studies by "third-wave" authors. In the most general and simple terms, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s—in the first and second waves of feminism—was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within literature.

Since the development of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity and third-wave feminism, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes, namely in the tradition of the Frankfurt School's critical theory. It has considered gender in the terms of Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing relations of power, and as a concrete political investment.^[1] It has been closely associated with the birth and growth of queer studies. And the more traditionally central feminist concern with the representation and politics of women's lives has continued to play an active role in criticism. In Indian literature the issues of feminism have been dealt with differently. As in a seminar held in Sahitya Academy writer Rafia Shabnam Abidi of Mumbai pointed out we have now a novel by Paigham Afaqui which has dealt with its female character Neera as a human being in most perfect manner while treating her being a female only as a part of her personality. She emphasised that for the first time in literature MAKAAN, a novel by a male writer (surprisingly) Paigham Afaqui has produced a character that contains and embodies the dream of the self of a woman that all thinkers through out the world have been craving for.She disputed the contention that only a female writer can contribute to feminist thinking and cause. 'A writer himself/herself has to rise above the gender dividing line while writing about a human society'.Commented Paigham Afaqui who was also present in the seminar. In a seminar held in Cuttuk (Orissa), India organised by National Book Trust, Autar Singh Judge had pointed out while representing Urdu fiction that Neera, the lead character of Makaan was the finest depiction of female character in the Indian literature. It received consensus. But unfortunately, the male politics as present in Urdu circles kept this view suppressed for a long time and started highlighting the writings of Quratul Ain Haider. they contented that 'writings by female writers' and not writings depicting female characters are feminist. the opinion is still divided but 'literature is not politics' as Paigham Afaqui pointed out on a few occasions in literary discussions. It is normally believed that female characters of Quratul Ain Haider only depict traditional personality of Indian women while Makaan is symbolizing the most vocal and effective career woman of India today.

Lisa Tuttle has defined feminist theory as asking "new questions of old texts." She cites the goals of feminist criticism as: (1) To develop and uncover a female tradition of writing, (2) to interpret symbolism of women's writing so that it will not be lost or ignored by the male point of view, (3) to rediscover old texts, (4) to analyze women writers and their writings from a female perspective, (5) to resist sexism in literature, and (6) to increase awareness of the sexual politics of language and style 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism 

Deconstruction

Deconstruction (or deconstructionism^[1]) is an approach, introduced by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, which rigorously pursues the meaning of a text to the point of exposing the supposed contradictions and internal oppositions upon which it is founded - showing that those foundations are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. It is an approach that may be deployed in philosophy, literary analysis, or other fields.

Deconstruction generally tries to demonstrate that any text is not a discrete whole but contains several irreconcilable and contradictory meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these interpretations inextricably; that the incompatibility of these interpretations is irreducible; and thus that an interpretative reading cannot go beyond a certain point. Derrida refers to this point as an aporia in the text, and terms deconstructive reading "aporetic." J. Hillis Miller has described deconstruction this way: “Deconstruction is not a dismantling of the structure of a text, but a demonstration that it has already dismantled itself. Its apparently-solid ground is no rock, but thin air

New Criticism

History

New Criticism developed in the 1920s-30s and peaked in the 1940s-50s. The movement is named after John Crowe Ransom's 1941 book The New Criticism. New Critics treat a work of literature as if it were self-contained. They do not consider the reader's response, author's intention, or historical and cultural contexts. New Critics perform a close reading of the text, and believe the structure and meaning of the text should not be examined separately. New Critics especially appreciate the use of literary devices in a text. The New Criticism has sometimes been called an objective approach to literature.^{[citation needed]}

The notion of ambiguity is an important concept within New Criticism; several prominent New Critics have been enamored above all else with the way that a text can display multiple simultaneous meanings. In the 1930s, I. A. Richards borrowed Sigmund Freud's term "overdetermination" (which Louis Althusser would later revive in Marxist political theory) to refer to the multiple meanings which he believed were always simultaneously present in language. To Richards, claiming that a work has "One And Only One True Meaning" is an act of superstition (The Philosophy of Rhetoric, 39).

In 1954, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published an essay entitled "The intentional fallacy", in which they argued strongly against any discussion of an author's intention, or "intended meaning." For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was quite irrelevant, and potentially distracting. This became a central tenet of the second generation of New Criticism.

On the other side of the page, so to speak, Wimsatt proposed an "affective fallacy", discounting the reader's peculiar reaction (or violence of reaction) as a valid measure of a text ("what it is" vs. "what it does"). This has wide-ranging implications, going back to the catharsis and cathexis of the Ancient Greeks, but also serves to exclude trivial but deeply affective advertisements and propaganda from the artistic canon.

Taken together, these fallacies might compel one to refer to a text and its functioning as an autonomous entity, intimate with but independent of both author and reader. This reflects the earlier attitude of Russian formalism and its attempt to describe poetry in mechanistic and then organic terms. (Both schools of thought might be said to anticipate the 21st century interest in electronic artificial intelligence, and perhaps lead researchers in that field to underestimate the difficulty of that undertaking.)

Hamlet

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 

This article is about the Shakespeare play. For other uses, see Hamlet (disambiguation).

The American actor Edwin Booth as Hamlet, c. 1870

The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, or more simply Hamlet, is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1599 and 1601. The play, set in the Kingdom of Denmark, recounts how Prince Hamlet exacts revenge on his uncle Claudius for murdering the old King Hamlet, Claudius's own brother and Prince Hamlet's father, and then succeeding to the throne and marrying Gertrude, the King Hamlet's widow and mother of Prince Hamlet. The play vividly charts the course of real and feigned madness—from overwhelming grief to seething rage—and explores themes of treachery, revenge, incest, and moral corruption.

Despite much research, the exact year Hamlet was written remains in dispute. Three different early versions of the play have survived: these are known as the First Quarto (Q1), the Second Quarto (Q2) and the First Folio (F1). Each has lines, and even scenes, that are missing from the others. Shakespeare based Hamlet on the legend of Amleth, preserved by 13th-century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum as subsequently retold by 16th-century scholar François de Belleforest. He may have also drawn on, or perhaps written, an earlier (hypothetical) Elizabethan play known today as the Ur-Hamlet.

The play's structure and depth of characterization have inspired much critical scrutiny, of which one example is the centuries-old debate about Hamlet's hesitation to kill his uncle. Some see it as a plot device to prolong the action, and others see it as the result of pressure exerted by the complex philosophical and ethical issues that surround cold-blooded murder, calculated revenge and thwarted desire. More recently, psychoanalytic critics have examined Hamlet's unconscious desires, and feminist critics have re-evaluated and rehabilitated the often maligned characters of Ophelia and Gertrude.

Hamlet is Shakespeare's longest play and among the most powerful and influential tragedies in the English language. It provides a storyline capable of "seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others."^[1] During Shakespeare's lifetime, the play was one of his most popular works,^[2] and it still ranks high among his most-performed, topping, for example, the Royal Shakespeare Company's list since 1879.^[3] It has inspired writers from Goethe and Dickens to Joyce and Murdoch and has been described as "the world's most filmed story after Cinderella."^[4] The title role was almost certainly created for Richard Burbage, the leading tragedian of Shakespeare's time.^[5] In the four hundred years since, it has been performed by highly acclaimed actors and actresses from each successive age.